R v. Brown 1996 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2302 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Analyse how the House of Lords interpreted the word â€Å"use† in 5(2)(b) of the Data Interpretation Act 1984 in the case of R v Brown (1996) 1 ALL ER 545 Introduction The case of R v Brown, 1996, concerned two uses of a police force Computer by an officer, for the purpose of obtaining registration numbers of cars owned by the debtors of a collection company that was run by a friend of the officer. The police officer was a registered data user[1] and as such, he was prohibited under the Data Protection Act 1984 to ‘hold personal data’[2]. The charge was for the criminal offence[3] under s 5(2)(b) of the1984 Act, which stated that: â€Å"A person in respect of whom such an entry (an entry pertaining to the identity of registered data user) is contained in the registrar shall not†¦(b) hold any such data, or use any such data held by him, for any purpose other than the purpose or purpose descried in the entry†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In the original trial, the judge directed to jury to consider that the act of simple retrieval from the computer, coupled with the intention of utilizing the information for a purpose that had not been registered was enough to satisfy a conviction. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "R v. Brown 1996" essay for you Create order The Court of Appeal[4] rejected the initial convictions of attempt on the first count, and full commission of the crime on the second count. It was held that the term, â€Å"use† when interpreted with sole reference to its ordinary, everyday meaning, required that the offence could only be committed when more than mere retrieval of data had been done. It was therefore necessary to â€Å"do something to the data†¦Ã¢â‚¬  which meant that the case was decided entirely on the appropriate answer to the legal question, which was: â€Å"Whether the word ‘use’ in section 5 of the Data Protection Act 1984 should be construed so as to include processing the data so as to gain access to information stored within a computer without doing any further act with the information†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This paper analyses the decision reached by the House of Lords with regard to the interpretation of the word ‘use’. An account of both the decision of the court, as espoused by Lord Goff of Chieveley and Lord Hoffman and the dissenting ratio decidendi, as stated by Lord Griffith is given 1.The decision of the court (a)Lord Goff of Chieveley Lord Goff followed the line of reasoning of the Court of Appeal and stated that: â€Å"since the word, ‘use’ is not defined in the Act, it must be given its natural and ordinary meaning. Synonyms of the verb ‘use’ are ‘to make use of’ or to ‘employ for a purpose’.[5]† He then analysed the context of the word in relation to the specific item that was purported to have been used by ascertaining the sort of activities that would be regarded as ‘use’ of ‘data’. He ascertained from this analysis that the act of retrieval therefore did not constitute ‘use’ of the computer information but was a mere prerequisite[6] to that use. Further to this, with reference to the meaning of the word ‘disclos ing’[7], which also has no definition within the statute, Lord Goff made the crucial observation that: â€Å"†¦if the purpose of this provision had been to provide that, exceptionally, disclosure may occur after the information has been retrieved from the database, it would surely have been drafted in a different form; and a similar provision would have been made in respect of use†¦[8]† This statement directs towards an acceptance that the statute is clear on the matter of the intentions of parliament and Lord Goff arrived at this decision by referring exclusively to the ordinary and everyday definition of ‘use’ within the context of the provision within the statute. As well as analysing the equivalent provisions for the word ‘disclosing’, he also referred to other provisions within the 1984 Act, including part I of the Schedule, which stated that: â€Å"Personal data held for any purpose or purposes shall not be used or di sclosed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those purposes.[9]† This provision clearly shows the word ‘use’ within a provision where there is clear protection by the law of data outside its electronic form, thereby showing the intention of parliament to criminalise subsequent ‘use’ of data after retrieval and inevitable transfer from the electronic format. This reasoning is based on the linear timescale of the criminal act of ‘use’ of personal data. There is first retrieval, followed by transfer from electronic form, analysis and application. If criminality were to be established exclusively at the point of retrieval prior to the transfer of the subject matter from data into information, it would therefore mean that all other subsequent steps would be irrelevant for the criminal law and Lord Goff pointed out that all unregistered retrieval by a registered data enterer would constitute a criminal act, whereas completion of a ll four steps by someone who is not registered, would not be criminal at all[10]. This in itself would lead to a great injustice of the law. In his analysis, Lord Goff referred to no other issues as, since there was no ambiguity following this literal interpretation, the analysis of other sources, such as Parliamentary Hansard, was wholly unnecessary. This is very much an embodiment of the literal approach to the interpretation of statutes, which has proved to be utterly essential for the purposes of ascertaining the meaning of words, as shown in the far earlier case of Fisher v Bell[11]which concerned the meaning of ‘offers for sale’ under s 1(1) of the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959. Here it was held that an offer could not be anything other than a binding contractual proposal to which an unqualified acceptance would constitute an obligation for the offeror to fulfil the offer. This therefore distinguished the ‘offer’ from the far more gener al ‘invitation to treat’ and, had the court stretched the meaning of ‘offer’ to include non binding invitations, the law of contract would have been badly distorted. (b)Lord Hoffman Unlike Lord Goff, Lord Hoffman rejected the arguments of the Crown in relation to the identification of retrieval as external to the application of acts within the meaning of use but instead stated that the acts of this particular case were in relation to use of the computer as opposed to the data. However, this was not the crucial point of his argument as he did state that this in itself would not preclude ‘retrieval’ being an acceptable element of the meaning of ‘use’. Lord Hoffman’s argument instead hinged crucially on the belief that the acts of the defendant fell in line with the definition of ‘processing’, which, under s 1(7) of the 1984 Act includes: â€Å"†¦extracting the information constituting the data†¦[12]† Lord Hoffman then stated that processing is entirely different from ‘using’ as there was no reference to it within the prohibitions of the 1984 Act, which means that the act of processing, as protected under principle 1 of the Schedule, did not constitute a criminal offence. Instead it was a civil breach that constituted a ground for removal from the registrar of authorised data processors[13]. Lord Hoffman therefore identified the intentions of Parliament as the creation of separate treatment for ‘processing’ and ‘using’ whereby the former was principle 1 (Sched) enforcement of data protection and the latter, as a ‘more extreme form of data processing’[14] was a criminal offence. This was therefore a clear departure from the difficulty of having to ascertain that something more than retrieval had to have been done to the information in order to constitute the criminal offence and is a simpler finding than tha t of Lord Goff as it denied existence of a gap in the law and established the differing treatment of the non-criminal punishments inherent in ‘processing’ 2.The dissenters[15] Lord Griffith Lord Griffith began in concurrence with Lord Goff by rejecting the submission of the prosecution in the Court of Appeal, who had made a crucial distinction between the concept of data as ‘electronically readable’ subject matter that, when translated into text on the screen, became the wholly distinguishable ‘information’ that was intelligible to the human mind. The result of this shift in the designation of the subject matter from ‘data’ to ‘information’ is that it is not protected by the 1984 Act[16]. His departure from the Lords who dismissed the appeal was simply that the word ‘use’ should be given a ‘broad construction’ and he rationalised this finding by pointing out the clear weakening of the protective powers of the 1984 Act. His reasoning was that the enactment of the 1984 Act was for the primary intention of ratifying the Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data.[17] With reference to Article 1 of the Convention, Lord Griffith stated that the retrieval of information, to be displayed in a screen, constituted an invasion of privacy as the display was illegitimate. He further believed that extension of the meaning of ‘use’ to illegitimate display and retention for potential dissemination in the future would by no means constitute a stretch of the definition of ‘use’ but also accepted the difficulty that prosecution would face in having to prove the actual way in which information would be utilised following retrieval. 3.Feedback (a)The approach of the court As regards the methodology of the House of Lords in its interpretation of the word â€Å"use† ther e were two distinct poles of thought. The first was seen in the opinions of Lord Goff and Lord Hoffman who both realised that questions of law that pertain to verbal meaning must be approached from the point of view of establishing an answer based on statutory definitions or, in absence of such guidance, the nearest possible definition that will ensure the fundamental requirement of certainty in the law. For vocabulary, this certainty is maintained by utilizing the ordinary and everyday meaning of words. The second pole of thought, as utilised by Lord Chieveley, looked towards the teleological side of statutory interpretation and ascertained that the intentions of parliament, as to the meaning of a statute, was the key method for assurance of the legal goal of equity and Lord Chieveley used the very reason for enactment of the 1984 as the embodiment of the Parliamentary intention to create a right of privacy against illegitimate displays of data under the European Convention. (b)Was the decision correct? This case is a primary example of an obvious disparity between the common sense approach of the layman and the judicial predicament of verbal anomalies that force the wrong decision as far as justice is concerned. The question to therefore ask is, was the House of Lords simply over literal in its interpretation of the word â€Å"use† or were they right and, as a result of their correct actions, revealed a gap in the law that had been created by careless wording of the statute? It is this latter notion of the ‘gap in the law’ which Earl Russel refers to in his parliamentary feedback to the case[18]. The appropriateness of the House of Lords cannot be blamed for finding itself forced to follow bad law. Statutory interpretation, for the purpose of obtaining the correct decision as required under current law is the primary role of the judge, regardless of the construction of that law. Their job is most certainly not the task of inte rpreting the law in order to meet the most equitable decision[19] unless of course the area of law has no governing statute and there are no clear precedents from which to draw the correct answer. As for Lord Hoffman, it is clear the same priority of statutory analysis was utilised in his decision but his more favourable reasoning denied a gap in the law for a jurisdiction such as the United Kingdom that, at that time, did not possess any Human Rights legislation and was therefore under no national obligation to interpret legislation in light of concepts of privacy[20], as was done in the teleological approach of Lord Chieveley. Conclusion The approach of Lord Hoffman was the correct interpretation of the statutory provisions at the time in which the case was decided but Human Rights Law has now fundamentally changed the approach of the courts whereby affected legislation can now no longer be decided on the basis of verbal distinctions. Bibliography Legislation Restri ction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 Data Protection Act 1984 Human Rights Act 1998 European Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data 1981 European Convention of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1951 (As contained in the schedule of the Human Rights Act 1998) Case Law R v Brown [1996] 1 ALL ER 545 Fisher v Bell [1960] 1 QB 394 and Others v Woolwich Building Society (Thompson) [1997] SC (HL) 66 Governmental Publications Parliamentary Hansard, 13 Mar 1997 : Column 438 Footnotes [1] As described under s 1(2) of the 1984 Act [2] s 5(1) [3] The offence is deemed to be criminal under s 5(5) [4] R v Brown [1994] QB 547 [5] R v Brown [1996] 1 ALL ER 545 at p 548g [6] ibid at p 549a [7] Which appears under s 1(9) of the 1994 Act [8] ibid per Lord Goff at p 549h [9] Referred to by Lord Goff at p 550b [10] ibid at p 550f-h [11] [1960] 1 QB 394 [12] Referred to by Lord Hoffman at p 560h of the judgement. [13] Per Lord Hoffman at p 560j [14] Per Lord Hoffman at p 561b [15] Lord Januncey of Tullichettle also dissented but merely concurred with Lord Chieveley. See the judgement at p 555h [16] All the judges of the House of Lords rejected this premise, see also ibid per Lord Hoffman, at p 558h [17] Cmnd 8535, Annex A [18] Parliamentary Hansard, 13 Mar 1997 : Column 438 [19] See the bad result in the case of Sharp and Others v Woolwich Building Society [`997] SC (HL) 66 [20] Since enactment of the Human Rights Act 1998, it is now the duty of judges to interpret legislation in line with the rights set out under the European Convention of Human Rights

Essay about Post 9/11 Racial Profiling of Muslim Americans

For a second, the U.S. stood still. Looking up at the towers, one can only imagine the calm before the storm in the moment when thousands of pounds of steel went hurdling into its once smooth, glassy frame. People ran around screaming and rubble fell as the massive metal structure folded in on itself like an accordion. Wounded and limping from the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, America carried on, not without anger and fear against a group of innocent Americans, Muslim Americans. Nietzsche’s error of imaginary cause is present in the treatment of Muslim Americans since 9/11 through prejudice in the media, disregard of Muslim civil liberties, racial profiling, violence, disrespect, and the lack of truthful public information about†¦show more content†¦By continually representing the Muslim or the Arab as the heartless villain, even cartoon movies contain a biased perspective against the Muslim image in America. All that glitters is not gold, and this is true f or films fresh off the reels of Hollywood, as some contain an unfair perspective of Muslims. Today one does not even have to wait for a movie to be released. Simply click the â€Å"ON† button on a remote and suddenly, thousands of news and television shows are available for one to enjoy. Muslims are also the target of prejudice in these news broadcasts and programs. One such television program released was a drama titled â€Å"24.† Issues and Controversies reports: â€Å"The show, which deals with a counterterrorism unit based in Los Angeles, featured a group of Muslim terrorist characters who were plotting to detonate nuclear weapons in the U.S. At the end of one episode, the terrorists successfully detonated a small bomb in a Los Angeles suburb, killing about 12,000 people† (â€Å"Race and Ethnicity in Entertainment†). This fictional show wrongly spreads the stereotypical image of Muslims and their clichà ©d image of the fundamentalists on 9/11. By add ing the title and image of â€Å"Muslim† to the phrase â€Å"terrorist† the program wrongly advertised that potentially every Muslim could be a terrorist. This stereotypical image is similarly expressed in news broadcasts through the use of terrorism news. By increasingly using terrorism and Muslims in topShow MoreRelatedEssay about Post-9/11 Islamophobia829 Words   |  4 PagesPost-9/11 Islamophobia Islamophobia denotes prejudice against, hatred for, or irrational fear of Muslims. Such fear and hostility leads to discriminations against Muslims, exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political or social process, stereotyping, the presumption of guilt by association, and most frequently, hate crimes. In post 9/11 America, Islamophobia has resulted in the general and unquestioned acceptance that Islam does not share common values with other major faiths, that Islam isRead MoreRacial Profiling And The United States1949 Words   |  8 Pages Racial Profiling Post 9/11 Rusat Ramgopal CRJBS 101 John Jay College Professor Gary Wright August 4, 2016 Racial Profiling Post 9/11 On September 11, 2001, nineteen hijackers associated with the terrorist group Al-Qaeda attacked the United States. They flew two planes into the World Trade Center and also attacked the Pentagon resulting inRead MoreJust Say No Programs And The War On Drugs Laws1375 Words   |  6 Pagesgovernmental racial projects of racial profiling cast new forms of racial control on blacks reminiscent of the days of slavery as the focal point of Regan’s implementation of the â€Å"war on drug laws† centered in poor urban black neighborhoods stripped of jobs, resources, and basic public services. 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Sole Foundation of Sound Education

Question: Discuss about the Sole Foundation of Sound Education. Answer: Study skills or what is also referred to as academic skills are some essential strategies usually applied by one while learning. These skills are not only critical to pursuance of success or academic excellence in school but also very helpful throughout one's life. Indeed, study skills are fundamental life skills which are transferable (Tones, Robinson, and Tilford, 2013, p. 26). While the list of study skills is actually inexhaustible, some of the skills are such as stress management, test taking, active listening, time management, memorization, and reading comprehension. Fundamentally, this paper seeks to address the notion that effective skills are the sole foundation of a sound education. The application of study skills is very effective in learning a milieu. However, different learning fields require varying skills considering that different fields have different requirements of the study (Cottrell, 2013, p. 47). For instance, a nursing course may require certain skills which may not be necessary for another field such as a language course because the practice is solely based on evidence. Study skills thus play a very fundamental role in ensuring that learners attain sound education. In essence, study skills enable learners to reflect on and do a self evaluation on certain subjects, thus identifying what is needed for them or how to improve in certain fields. Additionally, study skills help students develop self-awareness as well as identify their weaknesses and strengthens in academic performance. It should also be noted that other skills such as the development of personal qualities (positive thinking, determination, awareness, self-motivation and high self-esteem) are also transferable to the field of education and are equally effective (Pellegrino, and Hilton, 2013,p. 51). Study skills help students identify those factors that lead to the successful learning process. For this reason, students can focus, develop as well as apply the learning strategies and skills that they deem most effective. In addition, through the adoption of study skills, students can identify the significant weaknesses that impede the learning process thereby dealing with it effectively. As a consequence, study skills can be taught, learned and adopted by a person hence allowing him or her gain sound mind (McLaren, 2015, p. 39). While other external factors such as economic factors, social factors, and geographical aspects have little influence in the acquiring of education, study skills play a significant role in the field. Nonetheless, when it comes to gaining of effective study skills, it should be understood that there is no single best way of learning, in other words, students learn differently. For instance, one may well be suited to one study skills while another is best comfortable with a different one. Some students, for example, may be comfortable with listening other that reading. Nevertheless, the essential approach is for the student to identify what skills sit them (Cottrell, 2013, p. 30). In conclusion, it is inarguable that study skills are the basis for which one can gain a sound education. Therefore, it is crucial for a learner to develop the necessary study skills in given levels of education. Chiefly, study skills are considered essential in aiding the learning process since they provide learners with the necessary tools for development and improvement of intelligence, learning, and enhancement of success. References Cottrell, S. (2013). The study skills handbook. Palgrave Macmillan. McLaren, P. (2015). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. Routledge. Pellegrino, J. W., and Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2013). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. National Academies Press. Tones, K., Robinson, Y. K., and Tilford, S. (2013). Health education: effectiveness and efficiency. Springer.

Power Authority and Hegemony

It is common knowledge that there will be wars and rumours of war. This can be a prediction of what will happen in the future. But it can also be regarded as a statement of fact. This assertion led many philosophers and political scientists to conclude that the reality of international politics is something that can only be understood by the use of force.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Power Authority and Hegemony specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the hopes to ensure security, to grab territories and resources, in order to perpetuate the rule of the status quo (Wendt, 1992). In order to understand international politics and the resolution of conflict at a much deeper level it is imperative to know the difference between power, authority and hegemony. Before going any further it is important to know more about globalization. Globalization is not a mystery but it is like a diamond with multiple facets (Roy, 2001 ). Others see the interconnectedness of people with different cultural backgrounds and religious orientation and yet able to transcend these differences through the use of modern technology such as the Internet. There are those who see globalization in the context of mobility, that a person can be a citizen of the UK, yet lives in New York and travels frequently to China. Globalization is also seen as the destruction of diversity and the emergence of one dominant culture which many agree is dictated by the United States or Europe. There are also others who argue that globalization is nothing more than a planet being partitioned into manageable pieces by multinational corporations that are now as powerful as nation states (Byers Nolte, 2003). The discussion of power, authority and hegemony in international politics can be achieved if there is a clear understanding of the interconnectedness of people. A better grasp of how globalization has impacted international politics is importan t because in the 21st century ad beyond it is an important factor that must be considered when it comes to the source and utilization of power, authority and hegemony. Power and Authority Power can be defined as the ability to perform a certain task. It can also be a force of coercion or a demonstration of superior strength and abilities. But a more enlightened view can be seen in the following statement: â€Å"Power is not simply the glue that holds the social together, or the coercive force which subordinates one set of people to another †¦ it is also understood in terms of the processes that generate and enable any form of social action, relationship or order† (Baker, 2008, p.10). Authority on the other hand is the justification for power (Neal, 2007). The best example is the United Nations. Prior to the establishment of the United Nations the whole world was a battleground for kings, emperors and tyrants. Rulers and leaders of different kingdoms and fiefdoms from Asi a, Europe and the Middle-East went to war to either protect their domain or to expand the same.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More History books are filled with the exploits of soldiers and warrior-kings in their quest for more land and more wealth. This is consistent with the Hobbesian tradition that says international relations can be described as â€Å"being in a constant state of war† (Bull, 1995, p. 24). Member nations had given the United Nations the authority and this is a perception that this organisation has the power to change the world. Power is the ability to perform a task while authority is something that exist but it does not guarantee power. Although, it is also true that authority is the source of power and with authority comes the ability to accomplish something using only power alone. Hegemony on the other hand is also the capability of performing a task but instead of using its power, it uses other tools that enable the state to accomplish a given task (Haugaard, 2006). Hegemony The superpower status of the U.S. is evident from its military might (Bocock, 1986). This can be easily ascertained by how it has capitalised its victory in the Second World War. Another example is how the U.S. Military succeeded in removing Saddam Hussein from power and how they presently control key areas in the Middle East such as in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The U.S., has either forces on the ground or has a government sympathetic to their interests. The superpower status is also seen in its trade with other countries. The evidence of America’s is also evident when it comes to the type of products that it manufactures and sells all over the globe. This country is also a financial centre. In Wall Street, stocks are traded daily amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars. The United States has a great influence over the whole world. The U. S. possess the power to shape the course of history through military and finance. There are those who argue that the United States has power and authority but it also uses the power of hegemony. It can be argued that hegemony is based on the realist and the constructivist view of international politics. Realists believed that international politics is largely driven by a state of anarchy and that patterns of power are a product of this state of anarchy (Rivas, 2008). On the other hand, the constructivist view, it is not anarchy that determines the state of conflict or peace in a particular area. Instead, they assert that these matters are determined by shared beliefs between various entities in the international arena (Luard, 1988). In this regard, states define their respective identities based on hints or suggestions that they receive from other international actors. It should be noted that the state as it is a real actor within the International arena. It has the ability to socia lize with other states and thus reflect what is a common truth among human beings – that they are influenced by the ideas put forward by others. Countries may be regarded as sovereign players that each have their own identities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Power Authority and Hegemony specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One cannot claim that only single persons have the ability to determine an entire nation’s interests, but it can be asserted that it is the collection of these interests that brings out the differences in results. (Behnke, 2001). A hegemony like the United States identifies these problems, conflicts and needs and then enters a region armed with this knowledge and make everyone involved feel that only by their presence that stability and progress is possible. The hegemony exerting its control over a region is aware that geopolitical nations have needs. These needs have to be met. Th ese needs are related to autonomy, economic well being, collective self image and survival. With regards to security a hegemony will exploit the feeling of uncertainty felt by states. It has been said that many countries are driven to conflict because they are unsure about what their counterparts are thinking of. In certain scenarios, these uncertainties may be security related or not. Regardless of that matter, one must put into account the fact that these differences could cause a state of conflict. For instance, whenever one state is dealing with uncertainties about what may happen in the future or what another country could be planning in the present, then there are chances that these unknown intentions could result to conflict. A hegemony like the United States can exert influence on other states and convince them that it is better to be mindful of their needs and yet careful not to offend others based on agreed upon rules and the realization that they are dependent on internat ional trade and the cooperation of others. While liberals will assert that there is nothing that can be done to prevent war, since there can be no institution able to manage and regulate the behaviour of every actor in the global political stage, a hegemony believes the contrary. A hegemony can make these nations believe that if they put their trust in international regimes, then they can receive assistance and support that in turn will help them experience progress and stability. A good example of hegemony is the action of the United States when it comes to dealing with the Middle East. The U.S. was able to convince the nations within this region and even the countries all over the world that it would be best for the world to allow America to exert power and influence over this area. For many years the United States government was able to convince others that the stability and progress of the region is within their control. This is hegemony at work and as a result other nations had given the U.S. some form of a blanket authority to deal with the Middle East as they see fit. This explains why the United States interferes with the affairs of the countries within this region.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion It can be said that power is the number one priority of a leader. Without power then nothing can be accomplished. However, it is easy to understand that power is limited. Power requires an explanation of the source. This is why certain international organizations are given the power to interfere and impose their will on others. This is authority. Organizations such as the United Nations is authorized to perform actions that will ensure the safety and stability of the world. But aside from power and authority there is another tool that can be used to change the world and it is called hegemony. The best example is the United States and how it has shaped the course of history by convincing others that their presence and power is needed in a certain regions in the world. References Baker, C., 2008. Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. London: Sage. Behnke, A., 2001. Contemplations on Alexander Wendt- Grand theory in the age of impossibility. Cooperation and Conflict, 36(1), pp.33-40. Bocock, R., 1986. Hegemony. New York: Routledge. Bull, H., 1995. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics Second Edition. New York, Columbia University. Byers, M. and Nolte, G., 2003. United States Hegemony and the Foundation of International Law. UK: Cambridge University Press. Haugaard, M., 2006. Hegemony and Power: Consensus and Coercion in Contemporary Politics. Oxford: Lexington Books. Luard, E., 1988. Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System. New York: State University of New York Press. Neal, L., 2007. The Economics of Europe and the European Union. New York: Cambridge University Press. Roy, A., 2001. Power Politics. 2nd ed. MA: South End Press. Wendt, A., 1992. Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power  Politics. International Organization, 46(2) pp. 391-425. This essay on Power Authority and Hegemony was written and submitted by user Jaxen Rose to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.